Ruth Aliav Kluger. David Ben-Gurion. Menachem Begin. Winston Churchill. Theodor Herzl. Haj Amin al-Husseini. Ze'ev Vladimir Jabotinsky. Walter Rothschild. Herbert Samuel. High Commissioners for Palestine. The Sykes-Picot Agreement. The Balfour Declaration. King-Crane Commission. San Remo Conference. The Shaw Commission. The Hope-Simpson Report. The Peel Commission. The St. James Conference. The Biltmore Conference. The Anglo-American Committee. Building a Jewish Army. The Altalena Affair.
Evolution of Jewish Defense in Palestine. Jewish Brigade Group. Jewish Defense Organizations. LoHamei Herut Israel. The Jewish Legion. Palestinian Jewish Parachutists. Hebrew-Language Clandestine Radio. The Zion Mule Corps of Gallipoli. Congress of Berlin. Jewish Colonial Trust. Jewish Settlements. Early hopes that the appearance of a small Ottoman expeditionary force on the Suez Canal might set off a popular uprising in Egypt were swiftly disappointed.
While officers were sent to assist local insurgents against the Italians in Tripolitania, their activities there achieved no more than a minor diversion.
There remained only the remote hope that the two provinces might be regained at a future peace conference. Ottoman military strategy accepted that the war would be won or lost in Europe, and that the primary task of the Ottoman armed forces was to assist their German and Austro-Hungarian allies to achieve a decisive victory in that theatre. Only in , when Ottoman forces advanced into the Caucasus in defiance of German wishes, was this basic strategic assumption modified. Ottoman forces could assist their allies in three ways: they might intervene directly in Europe; they might draw British, French, and Russian forces towards themselves, thus diverting them from the European theatre; and they might seek to stimulate Muslim uprisings against the Entente Powers in the Caucasus, Iran, India, and North Africa, again with a view to diverting enemy forces from Europe.
All three strategies were attempted. Until late , when Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, direct Ottoman intervention in Europe remained impractical. In a total of seven Ottoman divisions were despatched to the Galician, Macedonian, and Romanian fronts, reinforcing their allies where they were weakest.
The diversionary strategy proved more effective, pinning down enemy forces in Egypt and the Caucasus, and above all, drawing off large British forces in the Dardanelles campaign and the subsequent campaigns in Mesopotamia and Syria. The revolutionary strategy, inaugurated by an appeal to Muslims world-wide to assist the Ottoman Caliph in a Holy War against the Entente, proved least successful: small-scale subversive and irregular operations were launched in a swathe of territories stretching from French North Africa through Tripolitania, the Caucasus, and Iran to the frontiers of British India , but they failed to call forth any significant uprisings, or to divert or pin down any substantial enemy forces.
Hence its concern to ensure that its alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary should outlast the war. This was a concern much reinforced by the substantial losses of territory Ottoman forces suffered in Anatolia and the Fertile Crescent during the campaigns of and Admittedly, in and the British did put out feelers to the Ottoman Empire, just as they put out feelers to Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria.
The contacts never reached the stage of negotiation and eventually petered out. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. DOI : Version 1. By Feroze Yasamee. London Princeton , pp. Permanences et innovations, Brussels , pp. Though the Ottoman Empire—in a period of relative decline since the late 16th century—had initially aimed to stay neutral in World War I, it soon concluded an alliance with Germany and entered the war on the side of the Central Powers in October The Turks fought fiercely and successfully defended the Gallipoli Peninsula against a massive Allied invasion in , but by defeat by invading British and Russian forces and an Arab revolt had combined to destroy the Ottoman economy and devastate its land, leaving some six million people dead and millions more starving.
As early as the first week of October , both the Ottoman government and several individual Turkish leaders contacted the Allies to feel out peace possibilities. Britain, whose forces then occupied much of the Ottoman territories, was loath to step aside for its allies, particularly France, which according to an agreement concluded in would take control of the Syrian coast and much of modern-day Lebanon.
Though Britain alone would engineer the Ottoman exit from the war, the two powerful Allies would continue to grapple over control in the region at the Paris Peace Conference, and for years beyond. The Treaty of Mudros, signed that evening, stated that hostilities would end at noon the following day.
By its terms, Turkey had to open the Dardanelle and Bosporus straits to Allied warships and its forts to military occupation; it was also to demobilize its army, release all prisoners of war and evacuate its Arab provinces, the majority of which were already under Allied control.
Bey and his fellow delegates refused to paint the treaty as an act of surrender for Turkey—later causing disillusionment and anger in Constantinople—but in fact that is what it was. The Treaty of Mudros ended Ottoman participation in World War I and effectively—if not legally—marked the dissolution of a once mighty empire. From its ruins, the victors of the First World War attempted to use the post-war peace negotiations to create a new, more unpredictable entity: the modern Middle East.
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